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Home  ›  Most Animals Fall Into One Of How Many Phyla?

Most Animals Fall Into One Of How Many Phyla?

Written By Wednesday, May 25, 2022 Add Comment Edit

High level taxonomic rank for organisms sharing a like body programme

For other uses, meet Phyla.

Life Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above form. Traditionally, in phytology the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants accepts the terms as equivalent.[1] [ii] [3] Depending on definitions, the animal kingdom Animalia contains about 31 phyla, the found kingdom Plantae contains near 14 phyla, and the fungus kingdom Fungi contains most 8 phyla. Current research in phylogenetics is uncovering the relationships between phyla, which are contained in larger clades, like Ecdysozoa and Embryophyta.

General clarification [edit]

The term phylum was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek phylon (φῦλον, "race, stock"), related to phyle (φυλή, "tribe, clan").[iv] [5] Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consequent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them as a group ("a cocky-contained unity"). "Wohl aber ist eine solche reale und vollkommen abgeschlossene Einheit dice Summe aller Species, welche aus einer und derselben gemeinschaftlichen Stammform allmählig sich entwickelt haben, wie z. B. alle Wirbelthiere. Diese Summe nennen wir Stamm (Phylon)." which translates every bit: However, perchance such a existent and completely cocky-independent unity is the amass of all species which accept gradually evolved from one and the same common original form, as, for case, all vertebrates. We name this amass [a] Stamm [i.e., race] (Phylon). In plant taxonomy, August W. Eichler (1883) classified plants into five groups named divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi.[one] [6] The definitions of zoological phyla take changed from their origins in the six Linnaean classes and the four embranchements of Georges Cuvier.[7]

Informally, phyla can be idea of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of torso plan.[8] At its virtually basic, a phylum can be defined in two ways: as a grouping of organisms with a sure degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a grouping of organisms with a certain caste of evolutionary relatedness (the phylogenetic definition).[9] Attempting to define a level of the Linnean hierarchy without referring to (evolutionary) relatedness is unsatisfactory, but a phenetic definition is useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature—such as how successful dissimilar body plans were.[ citation needed ]

Definition based on genetic relation [edit]

The most of import objective measure out in the to a higher place definitions is the "certain degree" that defines how dissimilar organisms need to be members of dissimilar phyla. The minimal requirement is that all organisms in a phylum should be clearly more than closely related to ane another than to whatsoever other group.[9] Even this is problematic because the requirement depends on knowledge of organisms' relationships: as more data become bachelor, specially from molecular studies, we are better able to determine the relationships betwixt groups. So phyla can be merged or dissever if information technology becomes apparent that they are related to i another or not. For example, the bearded worms were described as a new phylum (the Pogonophora) in the middle of the 20th century, just molecular work well-nigh one-half a century later on found them to be a grouping of annelids, so the phyla were merged (the bearded worms are now an annelid family).[10] On the other paw, the highly parasitic phylum Mesozoa was divided into 2 phyla (Orthonectida and Rhombozoa) when information technology was discovered the Orthonectida are probably deuterostomes and the Rhombozoa protostomes.[eleven]

This changeability of phyla has led some biologists to call for the concept of a phylum to be abandoned in favour of cladistics, a method in which groups are placed on a "family unit tree" without any formal ranking of grouping size.[ix]

Definition based on trunk program [edit]

A definition of a phylum based on trunk program has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd and Sören Jensen (as Haeckel had done a century earlier). The definition was posited because extinct organisms are hardest to classify: they can be offshoots that diverged from a phylum'south line before the characters that define the mod phylum were all acquired. Past Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a ready of characters shared by all its living representatives.

This approach brings some small bug—for case, ancestral characters mutual to most members of a phylum may have been lost past some members. Besides, this definition is based on an arbitrary betoken of time: the present. All the same, as information technology is grapheme based, it is easy to apply to the fossil tape. A greater problem is that it relies on a subjective decision nearly which groups of organisms should exist considered every bit phyla.

The approach is useful because it makes it easy to classify extinct organisms as "stem groups" to the phyla with which they deport the about resemblance, based only on the taxonomically important similarities.[9] However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-gear up of the crown group.[9] Furthermore, organisms in the stem group of a phylum can possess the "body program" of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens the thought that each of the phyla represents a distinct body programme.[12]

A classification using this definition may be strongly affected by the chance survival of rare groups, which can make a phylum much more diverse than information technology would be otherwise.[13]

Known phyla [edit]

Animals [edit]

Total numbers are estimates; figures from different authors vary wildly, non least because some are based on described species,[14] some on extrapolations to numbers of undescribed species. For instance, effectually 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include ten,000–twenty,000; 500,000; x million; and 100 meg.[15]

Protostome Bilateria Nephrozoa
Deuterostome
Basal/disputed Not-Bilateria
Vendobionta
Parazoa
Others
Phylum Meaning Mutual proper name Distinguishing characteristic Species described
Annelida Petty ring [sixteen] : 306 Segmented worms Multiple circular segments 22,000 + extant
Agmata Fragmented Agmates
Archaeocyatha Aboriginal cups An extinct taxon of sponge-class, reef-building organisms living in warm tropical and subtropical waters during the Early Cambrian. 3 known classes (Extinct)
Arthropoda Jointed human foot Arthropods Segmented bodies and jointed limbs, with Chitin exoskeleton 1,250,000+ extant;[fourteen] xx,000+ extinct
Brachiopoda Arm foot[sixteen] : 336 Lampshells[16] : 336 Lophophore and pedicle 300-500 extant; 12,000+ extinct
Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) Moss animals Moss animals, sea mats, ectoprocts[16] : 332 Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles, anus outside ring of cilia half-dozen,000 extant[14]
Chaetognatha Longhair jaw Pointer worms[16] : 342 Chitinous spines either side of head, fins approx. 100 extant
Chordata With a cord Chordates Hollow dorsal nerve string, notochord, pharyngeal slits, endostyle, post-anal tail approx. 55,000+[xiv]
Cnidaria Stinging nettle Cnidarians Nematocysts (stinging cells) approx. 16,000 [14]
Ctenophora Comb bearer Comb jellies[16] : 256 Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia approx. 100-150 extant
Cycliophora Bike carrying Symbion Circular mouth surrounded by modest cilia, sac-like bodies 3+
Echinodermata Spiny peel Echinoderms[16] : 348 Fivefold radial symmetry in living forms, mesodermal calcified spines approx. 7,500 extant;[xiv] approx. xiii,000 extinct
Entoprocta Within anus[16] : 292 Goblet worms Anus inside band of cilia approx. 150
Gastrotricha Hairy tum[16] : 288 Gastrotrich worms Two final agglutinative tubes approx. 690
Gnathostomulida Jaw orifice Jaw worms[xvi] : 260 Tiny worms related to rotifers with no body cavity approx. 100
Hemichordata One-half cord[xvi] : 344 Acorn worms, hemichordates Stomochord in collar, pharyngeal slits approx. 130 extant
Kinorhyncha Move snout Mud dragons Eleven segments, each with a dorsal plate approx. 150
Loricifera Corset bearer Brush heads Umbrella-like scales at each end approx. 122
Micrognathozoa Tiny jaw animals Limnognathia Accordion-similar extensible thorax 1
Medusoid Jellyfish-like Medusoids These are extinct creatures described as jellyfish-like and inhabited the late Precambrian, Ediacaran and early on Cambrian. 18 genera, extinct
Mollusca Soft[16] : 320 Mollusks / molluscs Muscular pes and mantle round vanquish 85,000+ extant;[14] 80,000+ extinct[17]
Nematoda Thread like Round worms, thread worms[sixteen] : 274 Round cross section, keratin cuticle 25,000 [xiv]
Nematomorpha Thread course[16] : 276 Horsehair worms, gordian worms[xvi] : 276 Long, sparse parasitic worms closely related to nematodes approx. 320
Nemertea A body of water nymph[16] : 270 Ribbon worms, rhynchocoela[xvi] : 270 Unsegmented worms, with a proboscis housed in a cavity derived from the coelom chosen the rhynchocoel approx. 1,200
Onychophora Claw bearer Velvet worms[16] : 328 Worm-like animal with legs tipped by chitinous claws approx. 200 extant
Petalonamae Shaped similar leaves No An extinct phylum from the Ediacaran. They are bottom-dwelling and immobile, shaped like leaves (frondomorphs), feathers or spindles. 3 classes, extinct
Phoronida Zeus's mistress Horseshoe worms U-shaped gut 11
Placozoa Plate animals Trichoplaxes[sixteen] : 242 Differentiated top and bottom surfaces, two ciliated cell layers, amoeboid fiber cells in between three
Platyhelminthes Flat worm[16] : 262 Flatworms[sixteen] : 262 Flattened worms with no body cavity. Many are parasitic. approx. 29,500 [14]
Porifera Pore bearer Sponges[16] : 246 Perforated interior wall, simplest of all known animals x,800 extant[14]
Priapulida Little Priapus Penis worms Penis-shaped worms approx. 20
Proarticulata Before articulates Proarticulates An extinct group of mattress-similar organisms that display "glide symmetry." Found during the Ediacaran. iii classes, extinct
Rhombozoa (Dicyemida) Lozenge beast Rhombozoans[16] : 264 Unmarried anteroposterior axial celled endoparasites, surrounded past ciliated cells 100+
Rotifera Bike bearer Rotifers[sixteen] : 282 Anterior crown of cilia approx. two,000 [14]
Saccorhytida Saccus : "pocket" and "wrinkle" Saccorhytus Saccorhytus is only about 1 mm (1.three mm) in size and is characterized past a spherical or hemispherical torso with a prominent mouth. Its body is covered by a thick only flexible cuticle. Information technology has a nodule above its mouth. Around its body are 8 openings in a truncated cone with radial folds. one species, extinct
Tardigrada Slow stride Water bears, Moss piglets Microscopic relatives of the arthropods, with a four segmented body and caput ane,000
Trilobozoa Three-lobed animal Trilobozoan A taxon of generally discoidal organisms exhibiting tricentric symmetry. All are Ediacaran-aged xviii genera, extinct
Vetulicolia Ancient dweller Vetulicolian Might possibly be a subphylum of the chordates. Their body consists of ii parts: a large front office and covered with a large "rima oris" and a hundred round objects on each side that have been interpreted as gills - or at least openings in the vicinity of the animal. Their posterior pharynx consists of 7 segments. xv species, extinct
Xenacoelomorpha Strange hollow course Subphylum Acoelomorpha and xenoturbellida Small, simple animals. Bilaterian, but lacking typical bilaterian structures such as gut cavities, anuses, and circulatory systems[18] 400+
Full: forty 1,525,000 [14]

Plants [edit]

The kingdom Plantae is defined in various ways by dissimilar biologists (see Current definitions of Plantae). All definitions include the living embryophytes (state plants), to which may exist added the 2 green algae divisions, Chlorophyta and Charophyta, to form the clade Viridiplantae. The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating "Plantae" with Archaeplastida,[19] a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.

The definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in contempo years. Thus some sources place horsetails in division Arthrophyta and ferns in segmentation Monilophyta,[20] while others identify them both in Monilophyta, as shown below. The segmentation Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.due east. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes),[21] or for conifers lone as below.

Since the beginning publication of the APG arrangement in 1998, which proposed a classification of angiosperms upwardly to the level of orders, many sources take preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been provided, the traditional divisions listed below have been reduced to a very much lower level, eastward.g. subclasses.[22]

Division Meaning Mutual name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Anthocerotophyta[23] Anthoceros-like plants Hornworts Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system 100-300+
Bryophyta[23] Bryum-like plants, moss plants Mosses Persistent unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system approx. 12,000
Charophyta Chara-like plants Charophytes approx. one,000
Chlorophyta (Yellow-)dark-green plants[xvi] : 200 Chlorophytes approx. 7,000
Cycadophyta[24] Cycas-like plants, palm-like plants Cycads Seeds, crown of compound leaves approx. 100-200
Ginkgophyta[25] Ginkgo-similar plants Ginkgo, maidenhair tree Seeds non protected by fruit (single living species) only ane extant; 50+ extinct
Glaucophyta Blue-green plants Glaucophytes 15
Gnetophyta[26] Gnetum-like plants Gnetophytes Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels approx. seventy
Lycopodiophyta,[21]

Lycophyta[27]

Lycopodium-like plants

Wolf plants

Clubmosses & spikemosses Microphyll leaves, vascular arrangement ane,290 extant
Magnoliophyta Magnolia-like plants Flowering plants, angiosperms Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels 300,000
Marchantiophyta,[28]

Hepatophyta[23]

Marchantia-like plants

Liver plants

Liverworts Imperceptible unbranched sporophytes, no vascular organization approx. 9,000
Polypodiophyta,

Monilophyta

Polypodium-like plants
 Ferns Megaphyll leaves, vascular system approx. 10,560
Pinophyta,[21]

Coniferophyta[29]

Pinus-like plants

Cone-begetting plant

Conifers Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids 629 extant
Rhodophyta Rose plants Carmine algae Use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments. approx. vii,000
Total: 14

Fungi [edit]

Division Meaning Common proper name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Ascomycota Bladder mucus[16] : 396 Ascomycetes,[16] : 396 sac fungi Tend to have fruiting bodies (ascocarp).[thirty] Filamentous, producing hyphae separated past septa. Tin reproduce asexually.[31] xxx,000
Basidiomycota Small base fungus[16] : 402 Basidiomycetes,[16] : 402 lodge fungi Bracket fungi, toadstools, smuts and rust. Sexual reproduction.[32] 31,515
Blastocladiomycota Offshoot branch mucus[33] Blastoclads Less than 200
Chytridiomycota Niggling cooking pot mucus[34] Chytrids Predominantly Aquatic saprotrophic or parasitic. Have a posterior flagellum. Tend to be unmarried celled but tin as well be multicellular.[35] [36] [37] 1000+
Glomeromycota Ball of yarn fungus[xvi] : 394 Glomeromycetes, AM fungi[16] : 394 Mainly arbuscular mycorrhizae nowadays, terrestrial with a small presence on wetlands. Reproduction is asexual but requires plant roots.[32] 284
Microsporidia Modest seeds[38] Microsporans[16] : 390 1400
Neocallimastigomycota New beautiful whip fungus[39] Neocallimastigomycetes Predominantly located in digestive tract of herbivorous animals. Anaerobic, terrestrial and aquatic.[forty] approx. 20 [41]
Zygomycota Pair fungus[sixteen] : 392 Zygomycetes[16] : 392 Most are saprobes and reproduce sexually and asexually.[twoscore] aprox. 1060
Total: 8

Phylum Microsporidia is by and large included in kingdom Fungi, though its exact relations remain uncertain,[42] and it is considered a protozoan by the International Society of Protistologists[43] (see Protista, below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has constitute information technology to exist polyphyletic (its members practise non share an firsthand ancestor),[44] which is considered undesirable by many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to abolish the Zygomycota phylum. Its members would be divided betwixt phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphyla incertae sedis (of uncertain placement): Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, and Zoopagomycotina.[42]

Protista [edit]

Kingdom Protista (or Protoctista) is included in the traditional v- or six-kingdom model, where it can be defined as containing all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.[xvi] : 120 Protista is a polyphyletic taxon,[45] which is less acceptable to present-solar day biologists than in the past. Proposals have been made to divide it amid several new kingdoms, such as Protozoa and Chromista in the Cavalier-Smith system.[46]

Protist taxonomy has long been unstable,[47] with dissimilar approaches and definitions resulting in many competing classification schemes. The phyla listed here are used for Chromista and Protozoa by the Catalogue of Life,[48] adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists.[43]

Phylum/Division Significant Common proper name Distinguishing characteristics Example Species described
Amoebozoa Amorphous creature Amoebas Presence of pseudopodia Amoeba 2400
Bigyra Ii rings
Cercozoa
Choanozoa Funnel animal Presence of a colar of microvilli surrounding a flagellum 125
Ciliophora Cilia bearer Ciliates Presence of multiple cilia and a cytostome Paramecium 4500
Cryptista Hidden
Euglenozoa True eye animal Euglena 800
Foraminifera Pigsty bearers Forams Circuitous shells with one or more chambers Forams 10000, 50000 extinct
Haptophyta
Loukozoa Groove animal
Metamonada Middle unmarried-celled organisms Giardia
Microsporidia Small spore
Myzozoa Suckling animal 1555+
Ochrophyta Yellow plant Diatoms
Oomycota Egg fungus[16] : 184 Oomycetes
Percolozoa
Radiozoa Ray animal Radiolarians
Sarcomastigophora Flesh and whip bearer
Sulcozoa
Total: nineteen

The Catalogue of Life includes Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta in kingdom Plantae,[48] but other systems consider these phyla role of Protista.[49]

Bacteria [edit]

Currently there are bacterial 40 phyla (not including "Cyanobacteria") that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code[50]

  1. Acidobacteriota, phenotypically diverse and more often than not uncultured
  2. Actinomycetota, Loftier-G+C Gram positive species
  3. Aquificota, deep-branching
  4. Armatimonadota
  5. Atribacterota
  6. Bacillota, Low-G+C Gram positive species, such equally the spore-formers Bacilli (aerobic) and Clostridia (anaerobic)
  7. Bacteroidota
  8. Balneolota
  9. Bdellovibrionota
  10. Caldisericota, formerly candidate division OP5, Caldisericum exile is the sole representative
  11. Calditrichota
  12. Campylobacterota
  13. Chlamydiota
  14. Chlorobiota, greenish sulphur bacteria
  15. Chloroflexota, greenish non-sulphur leaner
  16. Chrysiogenota, only iii genera (Chrysiogenes arsenatis, Desulfurispira natronophila, Desulfurispirillum alkaliphilum)
  17. Coprothermobacterota
  18. Deferribacterota
  19. Deinococcota, Deinococcus radiodurans and Thermus aquaticus are "commonly known" species of this phyla
  20. Dictyoglomota
  21. Elusimicrobiota, formerly candidate division Thermite Group 1
  22. Fibrobacterota
  23. Fusobacteriota
  24. Gemmatimonadota
  25. Ignavibacteriota
  26. Kiritimatiellota
  27. Lentisphaerota, formerly clade VadinBE97
  28. Mycoplasmatota, notable genus: Mycoplasma
  29. Myxococcota
  30. Nitrospinota
  31. Nitrospirota
  32. Planctomycetota
  33. Pseudomonadota, the most well-known phylum, containing species such as Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  34. Rhodothermota
  35. Spirochaetota, species include Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme affliction
  36. Synergistota
  37. Thermodesulfobacteriota
  38. Thermomicrobiota
  39. Thermotogota, deep-branching
  40. Verrucomicrobiota

Archaea [edit]

Currently there are 2 phyla that take been validly published according to the Bacteriological Lawmaking[50]

  1. Nitrososphaerota
  2. Thermoproteota, second most common archaeal phylum

Other phyla that have been proposed, but non validly named, include:

  1. "Euryarchaeota", most common archaeal phylum
  2. "Korarchaeota"
  3. "Nanoarchaeota", ultra-small symbiotes, single known species

See likewise [edit]

  • Cladistics
  • Phylogenetics
  • Systematics
  • Taxonomy

Notes [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b McNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2012). International Code of Classification for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code), Adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011 (electronic ed.). International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  2. ^ "Life sciences". The American Heritage New Lexicon of Cultural Literacy (third ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005. Retrieved 4 Oct 2008. Phyla in the plant kingdom are frequently chosen divisions.
  3. ^ Berg, Linda R. (2 March 2007). Introductory Botany: Plants, People, and the Environment (2 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. xv. ISBN9780534466695 . Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  4. ^ Valentine 2004, p. 8.
  5. ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen [The General Morphology of Organisms] (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin, (Deutschland): 1000. Reimer. pp. 28–29.
  6. ^ Naik, V.N. (1984). Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 27. ISBN9780074517888.
  7. ^ Collins AG, Valentine JW (2001). "Defining phyla: evolutionary pathways to metazoan body plans." Evol. Dev. 3: 432-442.
  8. ^ Valentine, James Due west. (2004). On the Origin of Phyla. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 7. ISBN978-0-226-84548-seven. Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in utilize by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Normally organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities every bit perceived by those early workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and and then on, to form a hierarchy.
  9. ^ a b c d e Budd, Chiliad.E.; Jensen, S. (May 2000). "A critical reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla". Biological Reviews. 75 (2): 253–295. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00046.x. PMID 10881389. S2CID 39772232.
  10. ^ Rouse G.W. (2001). "A cladistic assay of Siboglinidae Caullery, 1914 (Polychaeta, Annelida): formerly the phyla Pogonophora and Vestimentifera". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Order. 132 (1): 55–80. doi:10.1006/zjls.2000.0263.
  11. ^ Pawlowski J, Montoya-Burgos JI, Fahrni JF, Wüest J, Zaninetti L (Oct 1996). "Origin of the Mesozoa inferred from 18S rRNA factor sequences". Mol. Biol. Evol. xiii (8): 1128–32. doi:ten.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025675. PMID 8865666.
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  15. ^ Felder, Darryl 50.; Camp, David Thousand. (2009). Gulf of United mexican states Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&Thousand University Press. p. 1111. ISBN978-1-60344-269-5.
  16. ^ a b c d e f one thousand h i j k l m due north o p q r southward t u 5 w x y z aa ab ac advertizing ae af ag ah ai aj Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains (4th corrected ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN9780123736215.
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  20. ^ Mauseth 2012, pp. 514, 517.
  21. ^ a b c Cronquist, A.; A. Takhtajan; Due west. Zimmermann (April 1966). "On the higher taxa of Embryobionta". Taxon. 15 (4): 129–134. doi:x.2307/1217531. JSTOR 1217531.
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  23. ^ a b c Mauseth, James D. (2012). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (fifth ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-1-4496-6580-7. p. 489
  24. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 540.
  25. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 542.
  26. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 543.
  27. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 509.
  28. ^ Crandall-Stotler, Barbara; Stotler, Raymond E. (2000). "Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta". In A. Jonathan Shaw; Bernard Goffinet (eds.). Bryophyte Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. p. 21. ISBN978-0-521-66097-6.
  29. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 535.
  30. ^ Wyatt, T., Wosten, H., Dijksterhuis, J. (2013). "Advances in Applied Microbiology Affiliate ii - Fungal Spores for Dispersion in Space and Time". Advances in Applied Microbiology. 85: 43–91. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-407672-3.00002-2. PMID 23942148. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  32. ^ a b "Archaeal Genetics | Boundless Microbiology". courses.lumenlearning.com.
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  34. ^ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (9 January 2014). "Chytridiomycota". Multifariousness of Life. Susquehanna University. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
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External links [edit]

  • Are phyla "real"? Is there really a well-divers "number of brute phyla" extant and in the fossil record?
  • Major Phyla Of Animals

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum

Posted by: watkinsworick.blogspot.com

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